A SPEECH TRAINING MANUAL PART 1 COMPILED BY THE HEAD OF DICTION INSTRUCTORS: ABIOLA MATTHEW OLAGUNJU www.omaprofessionalservices@gmail.com
THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS COURSE • BACKGROUND AND DEFINITION OF SPEECH/DICTION/PHONICS. • MONOPHONICS: LETTER NAMES, SOUNDS (BRITISH STANDARD). • THE CONSONANT SOUNDS AND DESCRIPTION. • THE VOWEL SOUNDS. • WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED BY NIGERIAN SPEAKERS. • THE RULES OF STRESS • INTONATION • CONNECTED SPEECH • A CLOSE LOOK AT SYNTAX • A RESPONSE TEST THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS COURSE At the end of this training, the trainee should be able to: • Differentiate English speech sounds and phonics, phonics and diction. • Articulate the 44 speech sounds • Know the place, manner of articulation and state of the glottis of consonant sounds • Do stress timed rhythm in spoken English. • Do connected speech • Speak in the right intonation • Read in the right diction • Spell in the right diction • Teach in the right diction BACKGROUND AND DEFINITION OF DICTION/PHONICS Phonics refers to the sounds that letters give or simply the sounds that the letters of the alphabet gives. On the other hand, Diction refers to the choice of words that are used in a particular context. Note however, that the idea or notion of diction in this course means the clarity with which a person pronounces words when speaking. Diction will be effective only when the words used or chosen are appropriate for the audience and purpose; when they convey your message accurately and comfortably. The idea of comfort may seem out of place in connection with diction but in fact, words can sometimes cause the listener to feel uncomfortable. You have probably experienced such feelings yourself as a listener hearing a speaker whose words strike you as inappropriate because of his pronunciation errors, grammatical errors, semantic error or morphological error. Hence, good communication starts with a profound respect for words, their denotations, their connotations, their force, their rhythm. There is no simple or single correct diction in English; instead you choose different words or phrases for different contexts. For example: To a friend you could say: “screw-up”. To a child you could say: “a mistake”. To the police you could say: “an accident”. To an employer you could say: “an oversight”. All these expressions mean the same thing. In other words, they have the same denotation but you would not likely switch one for the other in any of these three situations. A police officer or employer would take “screw-up” as an insult, while your friends at the bar after a table tennis game would take oversight as an affectation. Let us examine the term speech before we now examine the background of diction and speech. Speech has been defined as the ability to speak a spoken language, especially as distinct from the written language. However, in this course, speech means the vocalized form of human communication. It is based on the syntactic combination of lexical names that are drawn from large vocabularies. Each spoken word is created out of the phonetic combination of a limited set of vocabulary, vowel and consonant speech sound units. These vocabularies, the syntax which structured them, and their act of speech sound units differ, creating the existence of many thousands of different types of mutual unintelligible human languages. It is upon this tenet that we will base this course. According to linguists, there are five (5) levels of language, they are namely: phonology, semantics, syntax, morphology and etymology. When we say Phonology we are talking about the sound symbols or system of a given language and the analysis and classification of the phoneme of a language, in this case: English, under which we have English phonetics and phonics. So when you say don’t say yacht say /jot/, don’t say tomb but say /tu:m/, we are paying attention to phoneticsounds. Pronunciation error in common words such as principal /printsipl/ and plait /plat/, swallow /swɒlәƱ/, yacht /jɒt/, fish /fI∫/ is corrected based on our understanding of phonetics. The same is true of everyday phrases such as ‘two eggs’ instead of By semantics, we mean the science of meaning of a word. So what kind of error will you say is committed in this sentence: Colourless green ideas are furious? Mr Matthew saw John in a dark glass. Of course, semantic error isn’t it? When we say syntax, we are considering the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences. For example what kind of error will you say is committed in these sentences? I hate him snoring. There are some certain things I don’t know about diction This our trainer is very brilliant. What is that your name again? It was me who sent for you. Listen, they are calling you I need some stationeries. I don’t have informations on his where about. I purchased some underwears yesterday. That was the most fatal accident I have ever seen. All the sentences above are erroneous because they do not follow the order of syntax or grammar. Again we can say that the diction is not appropriate or that there are grammatical infelicities in the sentences above. By morphology, we mean the rules for forming admissible words. In other words, morphology is the study of the forms of words and the way in which the words are related to other words of the same language. So here we talk about the affixes, prefixes, infix, and root of a word as to how they all contribute to the meaning of a word. For example, I can get the meaning of a long word say ‘malodorous’ by considering the morphological form or make up of a word. ‘mal’ means bad, and ‘odour’ is a kind of smell. The suffix ‘ous’ means having the qualities of …, hence I can conclude that malodorous means having a bad smell. However, one must be careful because not all morphological words convey their original meaning. For example, the word ‘invaluable’ can’t be used as a negative word because it is positive. Finally, by etymology, we mean the base or root or origin of a word and how their form and meaning have changed over time. Knowing the origin of a word can help a speaker of English to know the meaning of a word and can go a long way to aid spelling. For example, one can easily spell the word staphylococcus correctly if he knows that it is a latinic word because latinic and Greek words are spelt with ph for sound /f/. For the purpose of this course, however, we will concentrate on the basis of diction/phonics. This is because speech is researched in terms of speech production of the sounds used in spoken language. Diction of course, is researched in terms of the grammatical convention or syntactic rules of language. Speech and diction can therefore be discussed clearly at two levels, namely: Phonology and Syntax levels of language. Having understood the difference and similarities between diction and phonics, we need to examine the distinctive features of English sounds. This will help us to articulate each sound correctly. MONOPHONICS: LETTER NAMES, SOUNDS (BRITISH STANDARD) s/n Letters Names Pronunciation Sounds 1. A eI Ay /æ/ ant, apple 2. B bi: Bee /b/ bag, bat 3. C si: See /k, s/ cat, cap 4. D di: Dee /d/ dog, donkey 5. E i: Ee /e/ egg, elbow 6. F ef Ef /f/ fish, farm 7. G ʤi: Gee /g/ gun, girl 8. H eIʧ Aych /h/ hat, house 9. I aI Eye /I/ sit, bit 10. J ʤeI Jay /ʤ/ jug, jump 11. K keI Kay /k/ king, kettle 12. L El El /l/ lion, ladder 13. M Em Em /m/ mat, man 14. N En En /n/ net, nail 15. O ǝʊ Oh /ᴅ/ orange, cot 16. P pi: pee /p/ pen, pin 17. Q kju: cue /kw/ queen, quil 18. R a: Are /r/ run, rail 19. S Es Es /s/ sun, snake 20. T ti: Tea /t/ ten, tooth 21. U ju: you /Λ/ up, umbrella 22. V vi: vee /v/ van, voice 23. W dλblju: double you /w/ watch, wall 24. X Eks eks /eks, ks, gz/ xray, fox 25. Y Wai why /j/ yam, yellow 26. Z Zed zed /z/ zoo, zebra Spelling Drills Rules Learn to spell with the right diction. Spelling rule 1: Identify the word class of the word and the origin of the word. Spelling rule 2: Learn the meaning and usage of the word. Spelling rule 3: Learn to say the word with the right diction. Spelling rule 4: Divide the word into syllables. Spelling rule 5: Isolate the prefixes and suffixes in the word. Spelling rule 6: Isolate and learn tricky words by heart. Spelling rule 7: Spell each syllable with the right diction Drills • Abate / ǝ .beIt/ Abattoir /`æb.ǝ.twa:r/ • Abbreviation /ǝ.bri:.vi`eI.∫ǝn/ Abdomen /`æb.dǝ.mǝn/ • Abhorrence /ǝ`bᴅr.ǝnts/ Abominable /ǝ`bᴅm.I.nǝ.bl/ • Abrasive /ǝ`breI.sIv/ Absence /`æb.sǝnts/ • Absolutely /æb.sǝ`lu:t.li/ Abstinence /`æb.stI.nǝnts/ • Absurd /ǝb`zɜ:d/ Abysmal /ǝ`bIz.mǝl/ • Abyss /ǝ`bIs/ Accelerate /ǝk`sel.ǝ.reIt/ • Accentuate /ǝk`sen.t∫u.eIt/ Acceptance /ǝk`sep.tǝnts/ • Accommodation /ǝ.kᴅm.ǝ`deI.∫ǝn/ The letters of the alphabet can be a poor guide to pronunciation. Phonemic symbols, in contrast, are a totally reliable guide. Each symbol represents one sound consistently. Sound these words aloud: GROUP TASK 1 WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED ate, epitome, accent, fish, annihilation, foetus, awe/Awry, facetious, accessory, facet, ballet, forte. This means that beyond the phonics sounds of English it is important to know how phonetic sounds work. A good knowledge of the 44 sounds of English is a sine-qua-non if one wants to pronounce words correctly. This of course will require further training. Let’s consider it briefly. THE CONSONANT SOUNDS Sounds in English are differentiated in a number of ways. This lesson will analyze them. There are so many sounds in the English Phonetics, and these sounds – some of them are similar at first pronunciation, but different on pronouncing it the second time. Each sound in English has its distinct characteristic and these sounds can be distinguished in different ways. For instance, the consonant sound can be described with the following parameters: The place of articulation, manner of articulation, the state/position of the glottis and other emphasized distinctive features, which include -obstinate, sonorants, stringent, sibilants, etc. The Manner of Articulation In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators (speech organs such as the tongue, lips and the palate) when making a speech sound. The concept or manner is mainly used in discussion of consonants, although the movement of the articulators will also greatly alter the resonant properties of the vocal tract, thereby changing the formant structure of speech sounds that is crucial for the identification of vowels. For example sound: [d], [n], and [z] are all alveolar sounds What makes these sounds different? Manner of articulation makes them different. In simple terms, manner of articulation is the various configurations produced by the articulators. Manner of articulation answers the question “how?” Stops/Plosives An oral occlusive, where there is occlusion (blocking) of the oral vocal tract and air flow, so the air flow stops completely and is followed by an explosion. the plosives include: [p, t, k, b, d, g]. Fricatives These are sometimes called spirant, where there is complete friction (turbulent and noisy air flow) at the place of articulation. Fricatives are consonants made with a continuous air flow through the mouth, accompanied by a continuous audible or noisy hissing noise [f, v, s, z, ∫, ʒ, θ, ð, h]. It can be held for a long time. Affricates These are commonly described as a complex combination of stops and fricatives. Affricates begin like stops, but releases into a fricative rather than having a separate release of its own. /t∫/and /dʒ/ are English Affricatives. Affricatives are quite common around the world, though less common than fricatives. Lateral This is a type of sound produced with the side of the tongue, and this sound includes [l] Nasals Before analyzing these features, it is important to understand what oral sounds and nasal sounds are. The velum:the soft part of the back of the mouth behind the velum can be raised or lowered. Nasal sounds are produced when there is occlusion of the oral tract and air passes through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determines the resonant cavity that gives difference nasals their characteristic sounds /m, n, ŋ/ Approximants Approximant sounds are produced when there’s a little obstruction. They are sometimes called semi-vowels or glides. This is a type of consonant pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth, so that there is a slight turbulence. Examples are /w, r/ The the Place of Articulation The place of articulation is a location or a point when the airstream can be modified to produce a different sound. It is imperative to understand the organs of speech and their functions while learning the place of articulation of the consonant sounds. Using this criterion, consonant sounds are classified below: Bilabials They are the sounds produced by bringing together the two tips of the lips (the upper and lower lip) to cause obstruction when air is released. /p, b, m/ are examples. Labiodentals They are sounds produced when there is a contact between the lower lip and the upper front teeth. /r/, /v/ are examples. Dentals These are sounds produced when the tip of the tongue is wedged in between the upper teeth and the lower teeth to form obstruction when air is released./ð/and /θ/ are examples. Alveolars These are sounds produced when the tip of the tongue makes contact with the back part of the teeth (alveolar ridge). /t/, /s/, /d/, /n/, /z/, /l/, /r/ are examples. Palate Alveolar These are sounds produced when the tip of the tongue is raised to the hard palate and the alveolar ridge simultaneously. /∫/,/t∫/,/dʒ/, /ʒ/. Palatals It is a sound produced when the soft palate is raised before air can pass through the vocal tract. /j/ Velars These are sounds produced when the back of the tongue is raised to the soft palate, also called velum. /k, g, ŋ/ Glottals These are produced in the glottis with a minor friction. Example /h/. State of the Glottis This refers to the position or the State of the vocal cords when a sound is produced. When the vocal cords are together, air forces its way through and this causes vibrations in the vocal cords. The sounds produced during this are called voiced sounds. However, when the vocal cords are apart, air flows out freely between the vocal cords. The sounds produced during this state are called voiceless sounds. Voiced /b, d, g, v, З, d, ð, m, n, ŋ, h, l, r, w, j/ Voiceless /p, t, k, f, s, ∫, t∫, θ/ Other Distinctive Features • Obstruents: consonants formed by obstructing the air way /p, t, k, s, d, S, f, v/ • Sonorants: These are sounds with relatively free airflow from the vocal tract /m, n, ŋ, l, w, r, j/ • Strident: Characterized by harsh, insistent and discordant sounds /f, v, s, z, ʒ, S, t∫, dʒ/ • Sibilants: Consonant sounds produces with a hissing sounds /s, z, ʒ, ∫, t∫, dʒ/ s/n Phonemic Vowels Spelling Example 1. I I ia ie e ey y ee ei a ai ay o u ui In carriage /`kær.Iʤ/, marriage /`mær.Iʤ/ married /`mær.Id/, sieve /sIv/, mischief /`mIs.ʧIf/, babies /`beI.bIz/, ladies /`leI.dIz/ market /`mæ:.kIt/, evoke /I`vǝƱk/, wicked /`wIk.Id/, pocket /`pᴅk.It/, privilege /`prIv.ǝl.Iʤ/ money/`mΛnI/, donkey /`dᴅŋ.kI/ syncopation /sIn.kǝ`peI.∫ǝn/, symbol /`sIm.bǝl/, cynic /`sIn.Ik/, syntax /`sIn.tæks/ coffee /`kᴅf.I/, toffee /`tᴅf.I/ foreign /`fᴅr.In/ sausage /`sᴅs.Iʤ/, luggage /`lΛg.Iʤ/, village /`vIl.Iʤ/, surface /`sɜ:.fIs/, baggage /`bæg.Iʤ/ bargain /`ba:.gIn/, captain /`kæp.tIn/ Sunday /`sΛn.dI/, Monday /`mΛn.dI/ women /`wIm.In/ busy /`bIz.I/, minute /`mIn.It/, business /`bIz.nIs/ build /bIld/, biscuit /`bIs.kIt/, guitar /gI`ta:r/, guilt /gIlt/ 2. Ʊ U o oo ou pull /pƱll/, sugar /`∫Ʊg.ǝ/, butcher /`bƱʧ. ǝ/ wolf /wƱlf/, woman /`wƱm.ǝn/, bosom /`bƱz.ǝm/ good /gƱd/, wool /wƱl/, wood /wƱd/, cook /kƱk/, foot /fƱt/ could /kƱd/, should /∫Ʊd/, courier/`kƱr. I.ǝr/, would/wƱd/ 3. Λ U o oe oo ou up /Λp/, fun /fΛn/, luck /lΛk/, hut /hΛt/, sun /sΛn/, uncle /`Λŋ.kl/ oven /`Λv.ǝn/, onion /`Λn.jǝn/, thorough /`θΛr.ǝ/, honey /`hΛn.i/, dove /dΛv/, done /dΛn/ does /dΛz/ blood /blΛd/, flood /flΛd/ touch /tΛʧ/, tough /tΛf/, trouble /`trΛb.l/, southern /sΛð.ǝn/, enough /`InΛf/, couple /`kΛp.l/ 4. ᴅ O ou ow a (after /w/ or /j/) au off /ᴅf/, lot /lᴅt/, dog /dᴅg/ cough /kᴅf/, trough /trᴅf/ knowledge /`nᴅl.Iʤ/ quantity /`kwᴅn.tǝ.ti/, was /wᴅs/, what /hwᴅt/, quality /`kwᴅn.tǝ.ti/, yacht /jᴅt/, want /wᴅnt/ Australia /ᴅs`treI.li.ǝ/, because /bI`kᴅz/, sausage /`sᴅs.Iʤ/, laurel /`lᴅr.ǝl/ 5. Ə ou a ar e er or ure ar u re labour /`leI.bǝr/, colour /`kΛl.ǝr/, neighbour /`neI.bǝr/, favour /`feI.vǝr/, famous /`feI.mǝs/ ago /ǝ`gǝƱ/, China /`ʧaI.nǝ/, alike /ǝ`laIk/, animal /`æn.I.mǝl/, sofa /`sǝƱ.fǝ/ beggar /`beg.ǝr/, grammar /`græm.ǝr/, problem /`prᴅb.lǝm/, government /`gΛv.ǝn`ment/ concert /kᴅn.sǝt/, father /`fa:.ðǝr/, better /`bet.ǝr/, sister /sIs.tǝr/ actor /`æk.tǝr/, traitor /`treI.tǝr/, sailor /`seI.lǝr/, tailor /`teI.lǝr/ measure /`meʒ.ǝr/, temperature /`tem.prǝ.ʧǝr/, nature /`neI.ʧǝr/ backward /`bæk.wǝd/, forward /`fↄ:.wǝd/ column /`kᴅl.ǝm/ theatre /`θIǝ.tǝr/, centre /`sen.tǝr/, metre /`mi:.tǝr/ 6. e e ea ei eo a ai ay ie u ue egg /eg/, fend /fend/, let /let/, kettle /`ket.l/, yes /jes/ breath /breθ/, head /hed/, dead /ded/, bread /bred/, weapon /`wep.ǝn/ leisure /`leʒ.ǝr/, Leicester /`les.tǝr/ leopard /`lep.ǝd/, jeopardy /`ʤep.ǝ.di/ any /`e.ni/, many /`me.ni/, thames /temz/ said /sed/ says /sez/ friend /frend/, lieutenant /lef`ten.ǝnt/ bury /`ber.i/ guess /ges/, guest /gest/ 7. æ a ai ac act /ækt/, sad /sæd/, and /ænd/, mat /mæt/, pan /pæn/, bank /bæŋk/ plait /plæt/, plaid /plæd/ rack /ræk/, sack /sæk/, lack /læk/, back /bæk/ 8. i: ea ee ei ie e eo ey i oe uay ae peace /pi:s/, meat /mi:t/, each /i:ʧ/, bead /bi:d/, sea /si:/, creature /`kri:.ʧǝr/ eel /i:l/, weep /wi:p/, tree /tri:/, bee /bi:/, seed /si:d/ receive /rI`si:v/, seize /si:z/, conceive /kǝn`si:v/, deceive /dI`si:v/ relieve /rI`li:v/, siege /si:ʤ/, piece /pi:s/, achieve /ǝ`ʧi:v/ vehicle /`vi:. Ikl/, legal /`li:.gǝl/, eke /i:k/, theme /θi:m/, be /bi:/, comedian /kǝ`mi:.di.ǝn/, retouch /ri:`tΛʧ/ theosophic /θi:.ǝ`sᴅf.Ik/, people /`pi:.pl/, feoff /fi:f/, feodor /`fi:.ǝƱ.dↄ:r/ geyser /`gi:.zǝr/, key /ki:/ ravine /rǝ`vi:n/, police /pǝ`li:s/, ski /ski:/, machine /mǝ`∫i:n/ Phoebe /`fi:.bi/, foetus /`fi:tǝs/, amoeba /ǝ`mi:.bǝ/, subpoena /sǝb`pi:nǝ/ quay /ki:/ formulae /`fↄ:.mjƱ.li:/, aesthetic /i:s`θet.Ik/, aegis /`i:.ʤ/, haemoglobin /hi:.mǝƱ`glǝƱ.bIn/ 9. u: oo ou ui ue ew wo oe ough food /fu:d/, stool /stu:l/, troop tru:p/ group /gru:p/, troupe /tru:p/, you /ju:/, soup /su:p/, youth /ju:θ/ juice /ʤu:s/, suit /su:t/, nuisance /`nju:sǝnts/, fruit /fru:t/ due /dju:/, blue /blu:/, true/tru:/, argue /`a:gju:/, clue /klu:/ threw /θru:/, flew /flu:/, shrewd /∫ru:d/, stew /stju:/, few /fju:/ two /tu:/ shoe /∫u:/ through /θru:/ 10. a: a ah al ar au ear er uar pass /pa:s/, rather /`ra:. ðǝr/, ask /a:sk/, flask /fla:sk/, papa /pǝ`pa:/, garage /`gær.a:ʒ/, after /`a:f.tǝr/ ah /a:/ almond /`a:mǝnd/, balm /ba:m/, psalm /sa:m/, calm /ka:m/ art /a:t/, bark /ba:k/, car /ka:/, hard /ha:d/, park /pa:k/, arm /a:m/ aunt /a:nt/, laugh /la:f/, draught dra:ft/ heart /ha:t/, hearth /ha:θ/ clerk /kla:k/, derby /`da:bi/, sergeant /`sa:ʤǝnt/, Berkshire /`ba:k.∫ǝr/ guard /ga:d/ 11. ↄ: A ar au aw oa oar oor or ore ou our ure ball /bↄ:l/, fall /fↄ:l/, all /ↄ:l/, tall /tↄ:l/, water /`wↄ:tǝr/, stall /stↄ:l/ warm /wↄ:m/, warden /`wↄ:.dǝn/, war /wↄ:r/, quarter /`kwↄ:tǝr/ author /`ↄ:θǝr/, taught /tↄ:t/, cause /kↄ:z/, pause /pↄ:z/ awkward /`ↄ:kwǝd/, hawk /hↄ:k/, law /lↄ:/, lawn /lↄ:n/, awful /`ↄ:fǝl/ broad /brↄ:d/, abroad /ǝ`brↄ:d/ oar /ↄ:r/, soar /sↄ:r/, board /bↄ:d/, hoard /hↄ:d/ door /dↄ:r/, floor /flↄ:r/ or /ↄ:r/, cork /kↄ:k/, sword /sↄ:d/, morning /`mↄ:.nIŋ/, storm /stↄ:m/ ore /ↄ:r/, more /mↄ:r/, store /stↄ:r/, gore /gↄ:r/ ought /ↄ:t/, brought /brↄ:t/, thought /θↄ:t/, fought /fↄ:t/ mourn /mↄ:n/, court /kↄ:t/, pour /pↄ:/, four /fↄ:/ sure /∫ↄ:/ 12. 3: ear er ir or our ur urr yr (also note /3:/ colonel) earth /ɜ:θ/, learn /lɜ:n/, yearn /yɜ:n/, search /sɜ:ʧ/ erg /ɜ:g/, serve /sɜ:v/, dessert /dI`zɜ:t/ irk /ɜ:k/, first /fɜ:st/, shirt /∫ɜ:t/ worse /wɜ:s/, attorney /ǝ`tɜ:.ni/, world /wɜ:ld/ adjourn /ǝ`ʤɜ:n/, journey /`ʤɜ:.ni/ urn /ɜ:n/, burn /bɜ:n/, occur /ǝ`kɜ:r/ purr /pɜ:r/ myrtle /`mɜ:tl/ colonel /`kɜ:nǝl/ 13. Iǝ e ea ear eer eir eo ere eu ia ier io iou iu era /`Iǝ.rǝ/, serious /`sIǝ.ri.ǝs/, period /`pIǝ.ri.ǝd/ theatre /`θIǝ.tǝr/, idea /aI`dIǝ/, area /`eǝ.ri.ǝ/ ear /Iǝr/, clear /klIǝr/, near /nIǝr/ sheer /∫Iǝr/, compeer /`kᴅm.pIǝr/ weird /wIǝd/ theorem /`θIǝ.rǝm/, theory /θIǝ.ri/ here /hIǝr/, mere /mIǝr/, severe /sI`vIǝr/ India /`In.dIǝ/ fierce /fIǝs/, tier /tIǝr/, bier /bIǝr/ period /`pIǝ.ri.ǝd/ serious /`sIǝ.rIǝs/, aquarium /ǝ`kweǝ.ri.ǝm/ 14. eǝ A ae air ar are ear ei ere area /`eǝ.ri.ǝ/, Mary /`meǝri/, precarious /prI`keǝ.ri.ǝs/ aerobic /eǝ`rǝƱ.bIk/, aeroplane /`eǝ.rǝ.pleIn/ airport /`eǝ.pↄ:t/, stair /steǝr/, chair /ʧeǝr/ scarce /skeǝs/, care /keǝr/ fare /feǝr/, stare /steǝr/, declare /dI`kleǝr/ bear /beǝr/, pear /peǝr/, wear /weǝr/ their /ðeǝr/, heir /eǝr/ ere /eǝr/, there /ðeǝr/, compere /`kᴅm.peǝr/ 15. Ʊǝ oor our u ua ue uou ure poor /pƱǝr/, moor /mƱǝr/ gourd /gƱǝd/, gourmet /`gƱǝ.meI/ jury /`ʤƱǝ.ri/, rural /`rƱǝ.rǝl/, luxurious /lΛgʒƱǝ`ri.ǝs/ dual /dƱǝl/, casual /`kæʒ.ju.ǝl/ fluent /flu:ǝnt/, influence /`In.flu:ǝnts/, affluence /`æf.lu.ǝnts/ tortuous /`tↄ:ʧu.ǝs/ pure /pjƱǝr/, cure /kƱǝr/, mature /mǝ`ʧƱǝr/ 16. aI I is ais aye ei eye ie uy y ye ice /aIs/, mike /maIk/, find /faInd/ isle /aIl/, island /aIland/ aisle /aIl/ aye /aI/ (=yes) either /`aIðǝr/, Eiffel /`aI.fǝl/, sleight /slaIt/ eye /aI/ skies /skaIz/, die /daI/ buy /baI/, guy /gaI/ rhyme /raIm/, try /traI/, by /baI/ bye /baI/, dye /daI/ 17. eI A ai ay e ea ei ey ale /eIl/, make /meIk/, bass /beIs/(in music) aim /eIm/, claim /kleIm/, straight /steIrt/ tray /treI/, say /seI/ fete /feIt/ great /greIt/, break /breIk/ weight /weIt/, veil /veIl/ they /ðeI/, grey /greI/ 18. ↄI Oi oy uoy oil /ↄIl/, toil /tↄIl/, join /ʤↄIn/ oyster /`ↄI.stǝr/, toy /tↄI/, ploy /plↄI/ buoy /bↄI/ 19. ǝƱ O oa oe oh ou ow au eau ew oo old /ǝƱld/, comb /kǝƱm/ oak /ǝƱk/, boat /bǝƱt/, moan /mǝƱn/ foe /fǝƱ/, doe /dǝƱ/ oh /ǝƱ/ mould /mǝƱld/, soul /sǝƱl/ own /ǝƱn/, bowl /bǝƱl/, sow /sǝƱ/ (v) mauve /mǝƱv/ beau /bǝƱ/ sew /sǝƱ/ brooch /brǝƱʧ/ 20. aƱ Ou Ow oust /aƱst/, bout /baƱt/, mouth /maƱθ/ owl /aƱl/, brown /braƱn/, how /haƱ/, sow /saƱ/ (n) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSONANT SOUNDS AND SPELLING s/n Phonemic Consonant Spelling Example 1. m m mm mb mill /mIl/, amuse /ǝ`mju:z/, balm /ba:m/ summer /`sΛm.ǝr/, hammer /`hæm.ǝr/ plumber /`plΛm.ǝr/, thumb /θΛm/, comb /kǝƱm/ 2. P p ph pet /pet/, spill /spIl/, gap /gæp/ shepherd /`∫ep.ǝd/ 3. b b bb bun /bΛn/, above /ǝ`bΛv/, globe /glǝƱb/ rubber /`rΛb.ǝr/ 4. F f ff gh ph fit /fIt/ affair /ǝ`feǝr/, afford /ǝ`fↄ:d/, staff /sta:f/ laughter /`la:f.tǝr/, rough /rΛf/ photo /`fǝƱ.tǝƱ/, trophy /`trǝƱ.fi/, graph /gra:f/, nephew /`nef.ju:/ (also pronounced /v/) 5. V V vow /vaƱ/, avoid /ǝ`vↄId/, save /seIv/, (only in of& nephew) 6. θ Th thought /θↄ:t/, atheist /`eI.θi.Ist/ 7. ð Th these /ði:z/, weather /`weð.ǝr/, with /wIð/ 8. n n nn gn kn pn mn no /nǝƱ/, another /ǝ`nΛð.ǝr/, pin /pIn/ banner /`bæn.ǝr/, sunny /`sΛn.i/ gnat /næt/, sign /saIn/ knee /ni:/, know /nǝƱ/ pneumonia /nju:`mǝƱ.ni.ǝ/, pneumonic /nju:`mᴅn.Ik/ mnemonic /nI`mᴅn.Ik/, mnemonics /nI`mᴅn.Iks/ 9. t t th tt ed talk /tↄ:k/, active /`æk.tIv/, saint /seInt/ thames /teImz/, Thomas /`tᴅm.ǝs/ letter /`let.ǝr/, bottle /`bᴅt.l/ stepped /stept/, baked /beIkt/, crossed /krᴅst/ 10. d d dd ed day /deI/, adopt /ǝ`dᴅpt/, hard /ha:d/ ladder /`læd.ǝr/, sudden /`sΛd.ǝn/ bagged /bægd/, called /kↄ:ld/ 11. s s ss sc x (/ks/) ps set /set/, post /pǝƱst/, course /kↄ:s/ essay /`es.eI/, assume /ǝ`sju:m/, brass /bræs/ scent /sent/, descend /dI`send/ exercise /`ek.sǝ.saIz/, tax /tæks/ psalm /sa:m/, psychology /saI`kᴅl.ǝ.ʤi/ 12. z S ss z zz x (/gz/) desert /dI`zɜ:t/, reason /`ri:zǝn/, cause /kↄ:z/, days /deIz/ scissors /`sIz.ǝz/, dessert /dI`zɜ:t/ zoo /zu:/, ozone /`ǝƱ.zǝƱn/, zebra /`zeb.rǝ/ puzzle /`pΛz.l/, buzz /bΛz/ exact /Ig`zækt/, example /Ig`zæm.pl/ 13. l l ll lake /leIk/, believe /bI`li:v/, reel /ri:l/ thrill /θrIl/, bill /bIl/ 14 r r rr rh wr ring /rIŋ/ arrive /ǝ`raIv/, hurry /`hΛri/ rhythm /`rIðǝm/, rhyme /raIm/, rhetoric /`ret.ǝ.rIk/ write /raIt/, wrap /ræp/, wrong /rᴅŋ/ 15. ∫ sh ch sch sci s (followed by u) (followed by i) ss (followed by u) Followed by i) ti ce ci si sheet /∫i:t/, ashore /ǝ`∫ↄ:r/, cash /kæ∫/ chassis /`∫æs.i/, machine /mǝ`∫i:n/, moustache /mǝ`sta:∫/ schedule /`∫ed.ju:l/ (also with /sk-1/) luscious /`lΛ∫.ǝs/ sure /`∫ↄ:r/, sugar /`∫Ʊg.ǝr/ Asia /`eI.∫ǝ/ assure /ǝ`∫Ʊǝr/ mission /`mI∫.ǝn/, submission /sǝb`mI∫.ǝn/ nation /`neI.∫ǝn/, partial /`pa:.∫ǝl/ ocean /`ǝƱ.∫ǝn/ special /`spe∫.ǝl/, musician /mju:`zI∫ǝn/ mission /`mI∫.ǝn/ 16. ʒ S (followed by u) z (followed by u) ge (in French loan word) usual /`ju:.ʒǝl/, treasure /`treʒ.ǝr/, leisure /`leʒ.ǝr/ azure /`æʒ.ǝr/, seizure /`si:.ʒǝr/ genre /`ʒa:n.rǝ/, garage /`gær.a:ʒ/, espionage /`es.pi.ǝ.na:ʒ/, camouflage /`kæm.ǝ.fla:ʒ/, prestige /pres`ti:ʒ/ 17. ʧ ch tch t + ion (/tʃǝn/) t + ure (/tʃǝ/) cheek /ʧi:k/, teacher /`ti:.ʧǝr/ butcher /`bƱʧ.ǝr/, catch /kæʧ/ question /`kwes.ʧǝn/, suggestion /sǝ`ʤes.ʧǝn/ picture /`pIk.ʧǝr/, future /`fju:.ʧǝr/, nature /`neI.ʧǝr/ 18. ʤ J g dg gg di dj joy /ʤↄI/, injure /In.ʤǝr/ germ /ʤɜ:m/, engine /`en.ʤIn/ budget /`bΛʤ.It/, lodge /lᴅʤ/ suggest /sǝ`ʤest/ soldier /`sǝƱl.ʤǝr/ adjourn /ǝ`ʤɜ:n/, adjust /ǝ`ʤΛst/ 19. j Y i eau (/ju:/) eu (/ju:/) ewe (/ju:/) ieu (/ju:/) iew (/ju:/) u (/ju:/) ue (/ju:/) ui (/ju:/) yet /jet/, yield /ji:ld/ onion /`Λn.jǝn/, opinion /ǝ`pIn.jǝn/, spaniel /`spæn.jǝl/ beauty /`bju:.ti/ feud /fju:d/ ewe /ju:/ lieu /lju:/ view /vju:/, review /rI`vju:/ unit /`ju:nIt/, refuse(noun&adjective) /`ref.ju:s/, huge/hju:ʤ/ due /dju:/, value /`væ.lju:/, argue /`a:gju:/ suit /sju:t/ (also /su:t/) 20. ŋ ng nk (/ŋk/) nc (/ŋk/) nch (/ŋk/) nx (/ŋk∫/) (/ŋgz/) hanger /`hæŋ.ǝr/, singer /`sIŋ.ǝr/, song /sᴅŋ/ tank /tæŋk/, think /θIŋk/, bank /bæŋk/ uncle /`Λŋ.kl/ anchor /`æŋ.kǝr/ anxious /`æŋk.∫ǝs/ anxiety /æŋ`zaI.ǝ.ti/ 21. k k c ck ch cc x (/ks/) qu (/kw/) keeper /`ki:.pǝr/, speaker /`spi:.kǝr/, soak /sǝƱk/ cap /kæp/, act /ækt/, panic /pæn.Ik/ pocket /`pᴅk.It/, luck /lΛk/, sick /sIk/ chemist /`kem.Ist/, alchemy /`æl.kǝ.mi/, stomach /`stΛm.ǝk/ occasion /ǝ`keI.ʒǝn/, occult /ᴅk`Λlt/ taxi /`tæk.si/, fox /fᴅks/ quite /kwaIǝt/, sequence /`si:kwents/ 22. g g gg gh x (/gz/) goal /gǝƱl/, begin bI`gIn/, fog /fᴅg/ beggar /`beg.ǝr/, ragged /`ræg.Id/ ghost /gǝƱst/, ghastly /`ga:st.li/, aghast /ǝ`ga:st/ example /Ig`za:m.pl/, exist /Ig`zIst/ 23. w w wh u (after g) u (after q) watch /wᴅʧ/, aware /ǝ`weǝr/, swan /swᴅn/ when /hwen/, where /hweǝr/, awhile /ǝ`hwaIl/ language /`læŋ.gwIʤ/, linguistic /`lIŋ.gwIstIk/ quiet /kwaIǝt/, quick /kwIk/, require /rI`kwaIǝr/ 24. h H Wh hey /heI/, behind /bI`haInd/ who /hu:/, whole /hǝƱl/ GROUP TASK 2 WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED BY NIGERIAN SPEAKERS GROUP 1 abattoir, accessory, accent, adjourn, aegis, aesthetic, after, almond, anchor, annihilation area, artic, archive, amoeba, assume, ate, attorney, apostle, atheist, awry awe, ballet, bosom, build, bough, bird, bargain, because, butcher, bouquet bottle, brow, blood, bank, battle, canoe, cough, castle, creature, colonel calcium, conclusion, crepe, chartreuse, catch, couple, caesura, come, chalet, chiffon complacent, cattle, castle, congratulation, chicane, coffee, captain, comedian, clerk, confusion GROUP 2 depot, douche, decision, division, direct, dichotomy, desease, dicease, despise, discernible, dessert, denouement, dough, elite,earth, eke, ewe, epitome, enough, experience explosion, erosion, exclusion, education, espionage, exhaust, fatal, fish, foetus, facetious, facet, forte, flour, fusion, fuchsia, favourite, flood, federal, gear, genre, good, gnash, gourmet, gun, glory, guava, garage, guitar, guilt, how, GROUP 3 occur, owl, of, onion, orchid, pocket, plumber, police, presentation, phoebe, phlegm, privilege, prestige, plait, plaid, palace, papa, pass, period, precision, parked, passed, pleasure, peasant, parachute, pistachio, pawned, Pinochle, pasta, Rendezvous, ricochet, smooth, sachet, secretary, surface, sergeant, story, shrewd, surface, schedule stopped, slapped, suite, says, sword, shepherd, stipend, tomb, toffee, trough THE RULES OF STRESS Stress has been defined as the relative force of articulation. In other words, it refers to the highest pitch of a particular syllable in a word. A syllable is the distinct unit of sound in a word. From this definition one can rightly conclude that stressing a word means making a certain syllable of a word louder, longer and higher in pitch. So when you emphasize a sound in a word you have done what is called primary stress. Example: important – im/POR/tant Capital letters are used to indicate stressed syllables. THE RULES OF STRESS 1a. Two syllable words: Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs are stressed on the first syllable. Examples: COUN-try, QUIET-ly, and SNA-ppy. Some nouns however have their primary stress on the second syllable. Example: pa-RADE, gre-NADE. However, all verbs of two syllable words are stressed on the second syllable. Examples: de-CIDE, as-CEND. 1b. In a two syllable word, do not stress the syllable that consist the unstressed vowel such as / ǝ / and / i /. Examples: a-BOUT, FA-ther, MO-ther, AU-thor, ac-CENT, be-GIN, back-DATE, com-MERCE, de-BAUCH, dis-SUADE, em-BARK, for-GO, in-FORM, e-XA-mine, en-DURE, en-SURE, en-FORCE, o-BSESS, ob-TAIN, o-BEY, etc. 2a. POLY-SYLLABIC WORDS: Whenever a word ends with the following suffixes, an, ial, ie, ic and ion, Stress the second to the last syllable from the back. Examples: e-du-CA-tion, dis-CRE-tion, i-den-ti-fi-CA-tion, de-mo-CRA-tic, su-per-FI-cial, eco-NO-mic, dra-MA-tic, in-or-GA-nic, un-cha-rac-ter-RIS-tic, etc. 2b. Stress the last syllable from the back if a word ends with: ee, eer, and ere. Examples: em-plo-YEE, am-pu-TEE, refu-GEE, absent-TEE, divor-CEE, volun-TEER, mountain-NEER, ad-HERE, in-ter-FERE, etc. Other words with their suffix carrying stress are por-tu-GUESE, jour-na-LESE, ci-ga-RETTE, launde-RETTE, and en-ter-TAIN. 2c. Stress the third syllable from the end ium, phy, ical, ity, ogy, ify, cy, al, aut, and, ent, ate etc. Examples: e-TER-nity, ma-JO-ri-ty, cer-TI-fi-cate, pe-NUL-ti-mate, de-pen-da-BI-li-ty, etc. 2d. In a polysyllable word of four or five syllables stress the fourth syllable, the word ends with any of the following: ize, ible, tor, ism, -ure. Examples: LI-te-ra-ture, A-gri-cul-ture, CRI-ti-ci-sm, ca-THO-li-ci-sm, ad-MI-ni-stra-ture, e-XA-mi-na-ble, ad-VEN-tu-ri-sm. In a compound word, stress the root or base of a word, not the prefix or suffix. Examples: de-CRY, a-MISS, over-LAP, in-VOKE, in-FORM, inter-SECT, ob-SERVE, per-FORM, pro-CLAIM, pro-LONG, fore-TELL, im-PEACH, inter-POSE, sub-MIT, sug-GEST, sub-SCRIBE, sur-PASS, sur-ROUND, with-DRAW, under-CO-ver , up-SET, re-ACT, re-LATE, pre-VAIL, pro-CURE, dis-MEM-ber, etc. When the two words that make-up a compound word are nouns, the first element is stressed. Examples: BOOK-case, CHAIR-man, SCHOOL-bus, GIRL-friend, etc. The above rules hold only to an extent, therefore anytime you are in doubt, look up the stress placement in the dictionary. GROUP TASK 3 Exercise: Put Primary Stress on the following words 1. Wardrobe 2. Tribalism 3. Promulgate 4. Magistrate 5. Document 6. Advocate 7. Challenge 8. Recapture 9. outflow 10. Confiscate 11. Catholic 12. Emphatic 13. phonetic 14. Historic 15.Optimistic 16. Physical 17. practical 18. Clerical 19.Tactical 20. Fortunate 21. Important 22. Flabbergasted 23. Placement 24. Account 25. finality 26. Articulate 27. Judiciary 28. Incredible 29. Automatic, 30. Combination 32. Circumstances 33. Commentator 34. expenditure 35. Demonstrate 36. Restriction 37. Chocolate INTONATION Intonation can be discussed in terms of forms and functions. This can be understood by considering the different forms of tones that we have in English intonation. Although there are several forms of complex tunes, the two major tones in English utterances are the falling and the rising tones. The falling tone gives an impression of finality, resolution and firmness. Hence the following rules are permissible under the falling tone: 1. The falling tune is used to end declarative, command, exclamatory, instructive statement. Examples: Listen and repeat 1. I like it very much 2. I wouldn’t mind crossing the ocean for you 3. Tell everyone to vacate the room this night 4. OMA PROFESSIONALS train people well 5. Put the food on the table 6. Don’t be foolish, idiot. 7. It’s a sin to fall in love. 8. Don’t share all you have 9. Good heavens! 10. Oh! Why is this happening to me 2. Falling tone is used for Yes-No questions, especially for short questions like, for Example: Listen and repeat 1. (Cynthia is not back) is she? 2. (I saw Prof. Wole Soyinka last night) Did you? THE RULES OF RISING TUNE The rising tone is used to express doubt uncertainty and inconclusiveness. Hence, unlike the falling tone, the rising tone conveys the impression that something more is to follow. 1. It ends a formal polite request. Examples: Listen and repeat i. Step on to your balcony. ii. May I come in? iii. Please be seated. iv. Do you mind a cup of coffee? 2. It ends tags after statements. Example: Listen and repeat i. Let’s go, shall we? ii. He hasn’t come, has he? iii. You didn’t see your dad, did you? iv. We are friends, aren’t we? v. Shut the door, will you? 3. It ends yes or no questions. Examples: Listen and repeat i. Will you marry me? ii. Do you love me? iii. Have you seen Mr. Abiyola? iv. As anyone called me? v. Can you handle the project? 4. It ends an initial sub-ordinate clause. Examples: Listen and repeat i. Before you go, tell him to come ii. When you get there, kill the idiot iii. Get out of here, he yelled at him. iv. I can’t believe that he said at last. v. I can finish the job, before I go home. 5. It ends statements that express protest, surprise or disagreement. Examples: Listen and repeat i. No, it is a lie ii. The man never came here iii. I won’t be party to this iv. I’m not interested in his cock and bull stories v. You won’t do this under my roof. 6. It is used to ask WH-questions that show warm personal interest. Examples: Listen and repeat i. How’s your son? ii. What’s in your wallet? iii. When are you coming to my house? iv. What’s wrong with your eyes? v. Where are your kids? 7. The rising tone is used in statements that are intended to encourage. Examples: Listen and repeat i. Mum will be here soon ii. I’ll do my best (so don’t bother) iii. I won’t keep you waiting iv. You can still do it v. You’re born to make it PRACTICE INTONATION 1 THE CRAWLING SHAWL AND THE HAWK THE CRAWLING SHAWL: Hi hawk. You’re welcome onboard to a trip abroad. THE HAWK: This is wonderful. A shawl crawling and talking! THE CRAWLING SHAWL: Ahahahahah….Haven’t we met before at the waterfall? THE HAWK:Oh! Poor me, I forgot. I was busy soaring away from the storm. I’m sorry. THE CRAWLING SHAWL: It’s okay. Let’s leave here now so that we don’t get gored by a wild deer. THE HAWK: Alright shawl. It’s already quarter past four. Get off the floor and let’s fly across the lawn before it is dawn. PRACTICE INTONATION 2Bonny and Jerry Bonny: It’s tortuous to live in the poor rural areas Jerry: The luxurious life and gourmet food are hard to find in the moor areas. Bonny: Sure! The fluent and people of affluence would find it tortuous. Jerry: Imagine, pouring water in a gourd for a person of affluence to drink. Bonny: It’s not that bad. Most of the fluent and influential men came from these poor rural areas. Jerry: Fewer people still live in the poor, rural and casual areas. Bonny: That’s a casual statement. PRACTICE INTONATION 3: RIO FERDINAND AND ALEX FERGUSON RIO FERDINAND:Hi Fergie. Have you heard the emerging story about the attorney’s journey? ALEX FERGUSON: I can’t say. Do you mean the attorney that loves traversing the world? RIO FERDINAND: Yes. I mean Attorney Fermoy. ALEX FERGUSON: What about his journey that you yearn to serve me this time? RIO FERDINAND: I heard the attorney yearns to learn and research about adjourned cases. ALEX FERGUSON: So? RIO FERDINAND: Some irksome occurrences occurred during his journey. ALEX FERGUSON: Really? How irksome was it? RIO FERDINAND: His shirts were torn by his purring cat. ALEX FERGUSON: That must have really irked Attorney Fermoy. RIO FERDINAND: To worsen it all, his first research work was also burnt. ALEX FERGUSON: That’s indeed irksome. He must be searching for a dirk to murder his purring cat right now. CONNECTED SPEECH Why do native speakers sound differently from foreign speakers? When native speakers speak naturally, they do not both stress stressed and unstressed syllables. They do not pronounce a word, stop, and then say the next word in the sentence. A fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into each other. To make speech flow smoothly, the way we pronounce the end and beginning of some words can change depending on the sounds at the beginning and end of those words. These changes are described as characteristics of connected speech. Aspects of connected speech 1. Stress-timed Rhythm: is a theory in connected speech that implies that syllables are stressed at relatively regular intervals whether they are separated by unstressed syllables or not. In other words, the time that a stressed syllable occurs to the time that another occur will tend to be the same irrespective of the unstressed syllable that comes between them. Consider the following expressions and take note of the syllable and words with the primary stress: ‘Gold ‘ finds‘nobody you‘ find it. ‘Walk‘ down the ‘path to the’ end of the ca’nal. In ‘vain your ‘bangles ‘cast. ‘Coming and ‘going these’ several ‘seasons. I ‘came, I ‘saw and I ‘conquered. I am ‘here to ‘bury ‘Caesar not to ‘praise him’. It is important to speak using the stress-time rhythm because some languages have a different rhythmical structure known as syllable timed rhythm. For instance in Telugu and Yoruba languages, all syllables, whether stressed or unstressed, tend to occur at regular intervals and the time between stressed syllables will be shorter or longer in proportion to the number of unstressed syllables.Hence, stressed-timed rhythm in English must be learnt in other to be a fluent speaker of English language. PRACTISE STRESS TIMED RHYTHM:1. THE BEE AND THE AMOEBA MR. BEE: Oh no, why me! THE AMOEBA: Weep not my sweet Bee. Tell me what worries you deep inside. MR BEE: Is it legal for a sea creature to destroy the seed I feed on? THE AMOEBA: No! But he could do that under the aegis of a police eel. MR. BEE: A police eel? THE AMOEBA: Yes, a police eel. You see Mr. Bee, we will never know peace in Nigeria, either in the water or on land if police eels aren’t removed. MR. BEE: Then who will protect us? THE AMOEBA: We will create a new eel foetus with a new mind to be our police eel. MR. BEE: I would have been dead by then. Oh no! THE AMOEBA: No! You’ll be alive. Weep not my sweet Bee! 2. BILL GATE AND BRIGHT TROY Bill Gate: Hi Troy, today I will show you how great I am. Bright Troy: I’m too wise, warlike and priceless to join you in any discussion. Bill Gate: This discussion will buoy you because it’s about my discoveries. Try and listen to me. Bright Troy: I’m planning to fight a war. I’m the great city of Troy, I listen to nobody. Bill Gate: I’m Bill Gate, I discovered the Microsoft because I feel people should be able to relate globally instead of fighting. Bright Troy: Oh Gate, Bill Gate welcome to the great city of Troy, thank you for taking me serious. 3. VAAL AND GERARD VAAL: Hey Gerard, how are you today? GERARD: I’m fine thank you. I feel so much relief in my arm. VAAL: Really? Did papa get you any balm? GERARD: Yes, he did and it worked like charm. VAAL: Tell me more about this balm. GERARD: Papa got it from Berkshire and as he applied it to the injured arm, I felt relieved and calm. VAAL: Can I get some of the charm?.......Oh! Sorry I mean balm. GERARD: I would rather you asked papa for the balm that works like charm. VAAL: Ah! Papa will beat me up. GERARD: Just kidding. 4. PRACTISE STRESS TIMED RHYTHM ‘It was a splendid spring indeed. The grasses spread about in complete splendour. One cannot but admire it with awe. Even when a little water is sprinkled, the grasses would sprout and split without sprawling, leaving one with total gaze. At least I watched Tom, the sprog of the house, spritz the grasses with water. During this season, the spruce grew all over the place. Of course there were enough sprats to eat during this season. Though the spring lasted on spree, we had enough sprig to decorate the house.’ 5. A POEM: NIGHTFALL IN SOWETO – OSWALD MTSHALI Nightfall comes like a dreaded disease seeping through the pores of a healthy body and ravaging it beyond repair A murderer’s hand, lurking in the shadows, clasping the dagger, strikes down the helpless victim. I am the victim. I am slaughtered every night in the streets. I am cornered by the fear gnawing at my timid heart; in my helplessness I languish. Man has ceased to be man Man has become beast Man has become prey. I am the prey; I am the quarry to be run down by the marauding beast let loose by cruel nightfall from his cage of death. Where is my refuge? Where am I safe? Not in my matchbox house Where I barricade myself against nightfall. I tremble at his crunching footsteps, I quake at his deafening knock at the door. “Open up! ” he barks like a rabid dog thirsty for my blood. Nightfall! Nightfall! You are my mortal enemy. But why were you ever created? Why can’t it be daytime? Daytime forever more? 6. ANIMAL FARM – GEORGE ORWELL . CHAPTER ONE Mr. Jones, of the Manor Farm, had locked the hen-houses for the night, but was too drunk to remember to shut the pop-holes. With the ring of light from his lantern dancing from side to side, he lurched across the yard, kicked off his boots at the back door, drew himself a last glass of beer from the barrel in the scullery, and made his way up to bed, where Mrs. Jones was already snoring. As soon as the light in the bedroom went out there was a stirring and a fluttering all through the farm buildings. Word had gone round during the day that old Major, the prize Middle White boar, had had a strange dream on the previous night and wished to communicate it to the other animals. It had been agreed that they should all meet in the big barn as soon as Mr. Jones was safely out of the way. Old Major (so he was always called, though the name under which he had been exhibited was Willingdon Beauty) was so highly regarded on the farm that everyone was quite ready to lose an hour's sleep in order to hear what he had to say. END Assimilation: occurs in connected speech when a sound belonging to one word causes a change in sounds belonging to neighbouring words and vice versa. The most described assimilation affects consonants. Hence assimilation in consonant will occur when two words are combined, the first of which ends with a single final consonant (cf) and the second of which starts with a single initial consonant (c’). A simple diagram can be constructed thus: - - - - - - - - - -- cf / c’ - - - - - -- The Diagram above shows word boundary Now if the phoneme that comes first is affected by the one that comes after, then the assimilation is called regressive. However, if the phoneme that comes at the initial position is affected by the one that comes first then the assimilation is called progressive. Consonants can change based on three reasons namely; Differences in place of articulation, differences in voicing and differences in manner of articulation. For instance, assimilation will occur when a final consonant cf alveolar is followed by an initial consonant (c’) that is bilabial. For example, the final consonant ‘t’ in ‘that’ will change to /b/ if it is followed by a bilabial initial sound as in ‘that boy’ becomes / /, ‘that person’ becomes / /,‘meat pie’ / /, ‘light blue’ - / /, ‘bright boy’ / /. Before a dental consonant ‘t’ will change to dental fricative and can be represented this way ‘that thing’ - / /, ‘get those’ / /, ‘cut through’ / /. Before alveolar sound ‘t’ will change to a voiceless ‘k’ as in ‘that case’ / /,‘bright colour’ / /, ‘quite good’ / /. In similar contents, ‘d’ would become ‘b’, ‘d’ and ‘g’, respectively, and ‘n’ would become ‘m’, ‘n’ and ‘j’. However, this is not true of other alveolar consonants: s and z behave differently, the only noticeable change is that ‘s’ or ‘z’ becomes ‘ʃ‘ or ‘j’ as in: ‘this shoe’/ / ‘those years’ / /. Final plosives become nasal or fricative. For example: ‘that side’ / /, ‘good night’ / /. Progressive assimilation occurs when a word initial ð follows a plosive or nasal at the end of a preceding word. The arrow means become. Examples: ‘in the’ ‘get them’‘read these’ If the sound coming before the voiceless /s/ is voiced then the /s/ becomes/z/. For example: ‘dogs’ / / ‘saves’ / / ‘turns’ / / ‘lads’ / / Other examples of assimilation are: Good boy - / / Good girl - / / Good thing - / /Good food - / / PRACTISE ASSIMILATION I saw him just once. / I found five of them on the table. / I don’t buy such goods. / At times I don’t go out. Elision is simply defined as a situation or circumstances where a phoneme may be realized as zero or a sound disappears. The following elisions are noticeable elision among native speakers which foreigners need to take note of. i. Elision of weak vowel /Ə / after ‘p’, ‘t’, for example Potato - / /Tomato - / / Canery - / / Perhaps - / / Today - / / ii. Weak vowels that come before /n/, /l/ and /r/ become syllabic. Examples Tonight - / /Police - / / Correct - / / iii. Elision can also occur while trying to avoid a complex consonant clusters. For instance Sixths throne - / / Consonant clusters of three plosives or two plosives plus a fricative, the middle plosive may disappear. For example: ‘act’ / /, ‘looked back’ / /, ‘scripts’ / /. iv. Elision of the final v in of before consonants. For example Lots of them - / /Waste of money - / / v. The /h/ sound is also often deleted. For example: You shouldn’t (h) aveTell – (h) imCan’t (h) ave Linking: in connected speech, we often link words in a special way. The most familiar case is the use of linking ‘r’. In the BBC accent the phoneme ‘r’ that occurs in the syllable final position is not pronounced, but it is linked with a word beginning with a vowel when it follows it. For example: ‘here’ / / but here are / /. ‘Four’ /fϽ:/ but Four eggs / / British speakers often introduce the linking ‘r’ even when there is no justification from the spelling. For example: ‘formula A’- / /Australia all out - / / ‘media event’ - / /‘idea of’ - / / PRACTISE LINKING Are they far away? / They are far apart. / There are some boys outside. / I’ll like to see more of you. / After a while I stopped going there. / After all, you are not my brother. / I looked here and there, but I saw no one. Sometimes native speakers link words by introducing a consonant sound. For example,phrases such as ‘two eggs’ and three eggs will be said thus: You can’t call it a day in written or spoken English without talking about the syllabic consonant. This is because it also helps us to see why native speakers sound different from foreign speakers. A syllabic consonant occurs when a consonant such as l, r or a nasal, stands as the peak of the vowel. For example: Bottle - / / Muddle - / / Cattle - / / Wrestle - / / Couple - / / Struggle - / / Trouble - / / Knuckle - / / Panel - / / Petal - / / Kernel - / / Pedal - / / Papal - / / Parcel - / / Babel - / / Ducal - / / A RESPONSE TEST 1. Describe the consonant sounds and write the 24 consonant sounds in English 2. Describe the vowel sounds and write down the 25 vowel sounds in English. 2. Choose the words that has the same sound with the one given or underline 1. /k/ a. archer b. architect c. champion d. archenemy 2. /ʧ/ a. machine b. merchant c. thrash d. trouble 3. /ð/ a. smooth b. cloth c. bath d. breath 4. /ʤ/ a. gaol b. bear c. ghost d. goal 5. /θ/ a. clothes b. healthy c. breathe d. bath 5. What will you do in this situation to correct the abnormality in this child: (a) The child is dentalizing alveolar sounds (b) Dentalizing palatal sounds (c) Substituting alveolar semi-vowel for alveolar lateral 6. Read this passage with the right diction: 7. Say the following phrases based on the rules of connected speech guiding them a. meat pie b. that boy c. read this d. tell him e. two eggs, f. tall African, g. car is h. 8. Pronounce the following words aloud: Fragrance, Weapon, Biscuit, Data, Good, Amoeba, Swallow, House, Yacht, Come, dove, vineyard, debt, Wednesday, receipt, google, sachet, deposit, lackadaisical, pivot, plumber, smooth, gear, chassis,salad, cleanse, complacent, zealous, chastity, chameleon, depot, legal, favourite, presentation, secretary, stipend, water, weapon, was, tuition. ELOCUTION: THE RULES OF READING AND SPEAKING WITH THE RIGHT DICTION Pronounce each letter names and sound correctly. MONOPHONICS: LETTER NAMES, SOUNDS (BRITISH STANDARD) s/n Letters Names Pronunciation Sounds 1. A eI Ay /æ/ ant, apple 2. B bi: Bee /b/ bag, bat 3. C si: See /k, s/ cat, cap 4. D di: Dee /d/ dog, donkey 5. E i: Ee /e/ egg, elbow 6. F ef Ef /f/ fish, farm 7. G ʤi: Gee /g/ gun, girl 8. H eIʧ Aych /h/ hat, house 9. I aI Eye /I/ sit, bit 10. J ʤeI Jay /ʤ/ jug, jump 11. K keI Kay /k/ king, kettle 12. L eI El /l/ lion, ladder 13. M em Em /m/ mat, man 14. N En En /n/ net, nail 15. O ǝʊ Oh /ᴅ/ orange, cot 16. P pi: pee /p/ pen, pin 17. Q kju: cue /kw/ queen, quil 18. R a: Are /r/ run, rail 19. S Es Es /s/ sun, snake 20. T ti: Tea /t/ ten, tooth 21. U ju: you /Λ/ up, umbrella 22. V vi: vee /v/ van, voice 23. W dλblju: double you /w/ watch, wall 24. X eks eks /eks, ks, gz/ xray, fox 25. Y wai why /j/ yam, yellow 26. Z zed zed /z/ zoo, zebra Spelling Drills Rules Learn to spell with the right diction. Spelling rule 1: Identify the word class of the word and the origin of the word. Spelling rule 2: Learn the meaning and usage of the word. Spelling rule 3: Learn to say the word with the right diction. Spelling rule 4: Divide the word into syllables. Spelling rule 5: Isolate the prefixes and suffixes in the word. Spelling rule 6: Isolate and learn tricky words by heart. Spelling rule 7: Spell each syllable with the right diction Drills • Abate / ǝ .beIt/ Abattoir /`æb.ǝ.twa:r/ • Abbreviation /ǝ.bri:.vi`eI.∫ǝn/ Abdomen /`æb.dǝ.mǝn/ • Abhorrence /ǝ`bᴅr.ǝnts/ Abominable /ǝ`bᴅm.I.nǝ.bl/ • Abrasive /ǝ`breI.sIv/ Absence /`æb.sǝnts/ • Absolutely /æb.sǝ`lu:t.li/ Abstinence /`æb.stI.nǝnts/ The letters of the alphabet can be a poor guide to pronunciation. Phonemic symbols, in contrast, are a totally reliable guide. Each symbol represents one sound consistently. Sound these words aloud: GROUP TASK 1 Pronounce all the words correctly when speaking and reading. If you are not sure of the pronunciation of the word, look up the word in your Pronouncing Dictionary and listen to its pronunciation. These words include common words like; plumber, fragrance, yacht, receipt, tomb, ballet, period, serious, area, swallow, and rarely used words like: gourmet, colonel, hearth, foetus, amoeba, chasm, chassis, hearse, wand, chamomile, chimera, chiropody etc Stress all the content words when speaking and reading. Content words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs and interjections. How will you read these sentences? a. My wife and I saw the elephant. d. The three beautiful girls are friends. b. Put the money in the envelope. e. Do you know the president? c. The woman cooked the food and her children ate it because they were hungry. Do not stress functional words when speaking and reading.Functional words are pronouns, prepositions, determiners, conjunctions. How will you read these sentences: 1. John gave the cop a cup of tea. 2. I told you to shut the door not fire your shot. 3. He lost his aim because of his lust for movies. 4. Before I could pick my gun, the thief was gone. 5. James had sung the song before my arrival. Apply stress timed rhythm to your spoken English. Don’t forget that Stress-timed Rhythm is a theory in connected speech that implies that syllables are stressed at relatively regular intervals whether they areseparated by unstressed syllables or not. In other words, from the time that a stressed syllable occurs to the time that another occurs will tend to be the same irrespective of the unstressed syllable that comes between them. Consider the following expressions and take note of the syllable and words with the primary stress: ‘Gold ‘ finds‘nobody you‘ find it. ‘Walk‘ down the ‘path to the’ end of the ca’nal. In ‘vain your ‘bangles ‘cast. ‘Coming and ‘going these’ several ‘seasons. I ‘came, I ‘saw and I ‘conquered. I am ‘here to ‘bury ‘Caesar not to ‘praise him’. Be consistent with your intonation: Recall that intonation may be defined as thepitch modulations used to convey meaning in utterances. It is the rise and fall of your voice when speaking. Relax and say these utterances aloud. Don’t forget that all content words (nouns, verbs, adjective, and adverbs) are said with the high pitch while all functional word (pronoun, preposition, conjunctions, determiners) are said with a low pitch. “I will marry when I want” “Things fall apart” “Will you marry me?” “Life is a walking shadow” “What is in a name?” Your eyes must move faster than your mouth so that your reading can flow and to avoid stuttering. Read this passage: ‘It was a splendid spring indeed. The grasses spread about in complete splendour. One cannot but admire it with awe. Even when a little water is sprinkled, the grasses would sprout and split without sprawling, leaving one with total gaze. At least I watched Tom, the sprog of the house, spritz the grasses with water. During this season, the spruce grew all over the place. Of course there were enough sprats to eat during this season. Though the spring lasted on spree, we had enough sprig to decorate the house.’ 7. You must observe all the punctuation marks in your reading. This will help you convey the message of the content you are reading. Now see if you can apply these rules when reading the dialogues, excerpts from literary works, poems etc. First you have to listen and watch the video attached to this part of the manual, then record yours on your phone or voice recorder. Connect your speech: A fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into each other. To make speech flow smoothly, the way we pronounce the end and beginning of some words can change depending on the sounds at the beginning and end of those words. So apply this rule; whenever a word ends with a consonant sound and the next word starts with a vowel sound, link or join. Example: tall African, car is, still are, mother are. Other rules are: aspiration, assimilation, linking ‘r’ and elision. PRACTICE STRESS TIMED RHYTHM: THE BEE AND THE AMOEBA MR. BEE: Oh no, why me! THE AMOEBA: Weep not my sweet Bee. Tell me what worries you deep inside. MR BEE: Is it legal for a sea creature to destroy the seed I feed on? THE AMOEBA: No! But he could do that under the aegis of a police eel. MR. BEE: A police eel? THE AMOEBA: Yes, a police eel. You see Mr. Bee, we will never know peace in Nigeria, either in the water or on land if police eels aren’t removed. MR. BEE: Then who will protect us? THE AMOEBA: We will create a new eel foetus with a new mind to be our police eel. MR. BEE: I would have been dead by then. Oh no! THE AMOEBA: No! You’ll be alive. Weep not my sweet Bee! 2. ILLUSTRATIVE CONVERSATION- BILL GATE AND BRIGHT TROY Bill Gate: Hi Troy, today I will show you how great I am. Bright Troy: I’m too wise, warlike and priceless to join you in any discussion. Bill Gate: This discussion will buoy you because it’s about my discoveries. Try and listen to me. Bright Troy: I’m planning to fight a war. I’m the great city of Troy, I listen to nobody. Bill Gate: I’m Bill Gate, I discovered the Microsoft because I feel people should be able to relate globally instead of fighting. Bright Troy: Oh Gate, Bill Gate welcome to the great city of Troy, thank you for taking me serious. PRACTICE INTONATION 3 ILLUSTRATIVE DIALOGUE THE CRAWLING SHAWL AND THE HAWK THE CRAWLING SHAWL: Hi hawk. You’re welcome onboard to a trip abroad. THE HAWK: This is wonderful. A shawl crawling and talking! THE CRAWLING SHAWL: Ahahahahah….Haven’t we met before at the waterfall? THE HAWK:Oh! Poor me, I forgot. I was busy soaring away from the storm. I’m sorry. THE CRAWLING SHAWL: It’s okay. Let’s leave here now so that we don’t get gored by a wild deer. THE HAWK: Alright shawl. It’s already quarter past four. Get off the floor and let’s fly across the lawn before it is dawn. CHAPTER 1 from the book: ANIMAL FARM by GEORGE ORWELL PRACTICE READING 3. A POEM: NIGHTFALL IN SOWETO – OSWALD MTSHALI Nightfall comes like a dreaded disease seeping through the pores of a healthy body and ravaging it beyond repair A murderer’s hand, lurking in the shadows, clasping the dagger, strikes down the helpless victim. I am the victim. I am slaughtered every night in the streets. I am cornered by the fear gnawing at my timid heart; in my helplessness I languish. Man has ceased to be man Man has become beast Man has become prey. I am the prey; I am the quarry to be run down by the marauding beast let loose by cruel nightfall from his cage of death. Where is my refuge? Where am I safe? Not in my matchbox house Where I barricade myself against nightfall. I tremble at his crunching footsteps, I quake at his deafening knock at the door. “Open up! ” he barks like a rabid dog thirsty for my blood. Nightfall! Nightfall! You are my mortal enemy. But why were you ever created? Why can’t it be daytime? Daytime forever more? A POEM: Abiku By JP Clark Coming and going these several seasons, Do stay out on the baobab tree, Follow where you please your kindred spirits If indoors is not enough for you. True, it leaks through the thatch When flood brim the banks, And the bats and the owls Often tear in at night through the eaves, And at harmattan, the bamboo walls Are ready tinder for the fire That dries the fresh fish up on the rack. Still, it's been the healthy stock To several fingers, to many more will be Who reach to the sun. No longer then bestride the threshold But step in and stay For good. We know the knife scars Serrating down your back and front Like beak of the sword-fish, And both your ears, notched As a bondsman to this house, Are all relics of your first comings. Then step in, step in and stay For her body is tired, Tired, her milk going sour Where many more mouths gladden the heart. A RESPONSE TEST 3. Describe the consonant sounds. Define and describe each sound 4. Describe the vowel sounds. Define and describe each sound 5. Choose the words that has the same sound with the one given or underline 1. /k/a. archer b. architect c. champion d. archenemy 2. /ʧ/ a. machine b. merchant c. thrash d. trouble 3. /ð/a. smooth b. cloth c. bath d. breath 4. /ʤ/a. gaol b. bear c. ghost d. goal 5./θ/ a. clothes b. healthy c. breathe d. bath 6.cat a. plait b. wand c. rather d. harder 7. car a. plantain b. massive c. garment d. matter 8. could a. bully b. brush c. rude d. poultry 9. birth a. journal b. armour c. path d. tour 10. share a. hair b. clear c. tier d. ire 4. What will you do in this situation to correct the abnormality in this child: (a) The child is dentalizing alveolar sounds (b) Dentalizing palatal sounds (c) Substituting alveolar semi-vowel for alveolar lateral 5. Write down the following based on their categories and sound them: (a) long vowel (b) short vowel (c) diphthongs (d) affricates (e) nasals (f) plosives (g) semi-vowels 6. Read this passagewith the right diction: ANIMAL FARM – GEORGE ORWELL CHAPTER ONE Mr. Jones, of the Manor Farm, had locked the hen-houses for the night, but was too drunk to remember to shut the pop-holes. With the ring of light from his lantern dancing from side to side, he lurched across the yard, kicked off his boots at the back door, drew himself a last glass of beer from the barrel in the scullery, and made his way up to bed, where Mrs. Jones wasready snoring. As soon as the light in the bedroom went out there was a stirring and a fluttering all through the farm buildings. Word had gone round during the day that old Major, the prize Middle White boar, had had a strange dream on the previous night and wished to communicate it to the other animals. It had been agreed that they should all meet in the big barn as soon as Mr. Jones was safely out of the way. Old Major (so he was always called, though the name under which he had been exhibited was Willingdon Beauty) was so highly regarded on the farm that everyone was quite ready to lose an hour's sleep in order to hear what he had to say. 7. Transcribe the following phrases based on the rules of connected speech guiding them a. meat pie b. that boy c. read this d. tell him e. two eggs N.B: You may wish to state the name of the connected speech in front of it. 8. What is assimilation? Give three (3) examples 9. What is elision? Give two (2) examples. 10. Write a short note on the following: (a) Stress-timed rhythm (b) Fricatives (c) Linking ‘r’ 11. In not more than 10 lines, compare and contrast diction and phonics. State the training you’ve just done and how you intend to use it. 12. Transcribe the following words: Fragrance / / Weapon / / Biscuit / / Data / / Good / / Amoeba / / Swallow / / House / / Yacht / / Come / / The importance of diction Diction is the clarity with which one speaks. This clarity is made through correct usage of syntax (grammar), semantics (meaning), phonology (pronunciation), morphonoloy (bread down of each word), and etymology (origin or root of the word) in spoken English. Let’s examine one aspect of spoken English: Phonology (pronunciation) Pronunciation: pronounce the following words aloud: Fragrance, Weapon Amoeba, Swallow Yacht, vineyard Wednesday, receipt google, sachet lackadaisical, plumber, smooth, gear, chassis, salad, cleanse, complacent zealous, chastity, chameleon, depot, legal, favourite, presentation, foetus secretary, stipend water, was, tuition epitome, accent, fish, annihilation, A RESPONSE TEST FOR LEVEL 1-3 DICTION TRAINING 1. Describe the consonant sounds and write the 24 consonant sounds in English 2. Write down the 25 vowel sounds in English and give two examples each. 3. Choose the words that has the same sound with the one given or underline 1. /k/ a. archer b. architect c. champion d. archenemy 2. /ʧ/ a. machine b. merchant c. thrash d. trouble 3. /ð/ a. smooth b. cloth c. bath d. breath 4. /ʤ/ a. gaol b. bear c. ghost d. goal 5. /θ/ a. clothes b. healthy c. breathe d. bath 5. What will you do in this situation to correct the speech impairment of this child: (a) The child is dentalizing alveolar sounds (b) Dentalizing palatal sounds 6. Say the following phrases based on the rules of connected speech guiding them a. meat pie b. that boy c. read this d. tell him e. two eggs f. tall African g. car is h. there are i. vision is 7. Pronounce the following words aloud: Fragrance, Weapon, Biscuit, Data, Good, Amoeba, Swallow, House, Yacht, Come, dove, vineyard, debt, Wednesday, receipt, google, sachet, deposit, lackadaisical, pivot, plumber, smooth, gear, chassis,salad, cleanse, complacent, zealous, chastity, chameleon, depot, legal, favourite, presentation, secretary, stipend, water, weapon, was, tuition. 8. Read the passage below in the right diction? ANIMAL FARM – GEORGE ORWELL CHAPTER ONE Mr. Jones, of the Manor Farm, had locked the hen-houses for the night, but was too drunk to remember to shut the pop-holes. With the ring of light from his lantern dancing from side to side, he lurched across the yard, kicked off his boots at the back door, drew himself a last glass of beer from the barrel in the scullery, and made his way up to bed, where Mrs. Jones was already snoring. As soon as the light in the bedroom went out there was a stirring and a fluttering all through the farm buildings. Word had gone round during the day that old Major, the prize Middle White boar, had had a strange dream on the previous night and wished to communicate it to the other animals. It had been agreed that they should all meet in the big barn as soon as Mr. Jones was safely out of the way. Old Major (so he was always called, though the name under which he had been exhibited was Willingdon Beauty) was so highly regarded on the farm that everyone was quite ready to lose an hour's sleep in order to hear what he had to say. At one end of the big barn, on a sort of raised platform, Major was already ensconced on his bed of straw, under a lantern which hung from a beam. He was twelve years old and had lately grown rather stout, but he was still a majestic-looking pig, with a wise and benevolent appearance in spite of the fact that his tushes had never been cut. Before long the other animals began to arrive and make themselves comfortable after their different fashions. First came the three dogs , Bluebell, Jessie, and Pincher, and then the pigs, who settled down in the straw immediately in front of the platform. The hens perched themselves on the window-sills, the pigeons fluttered up to the rafters, the sheep and cows lay down behind the pigs and began to chew the cud. The two cart-horses, Boxer and Clover, came in together, walking very slowly and setting down their vast hairy hoofs with great care lest there should be some small animal concealed in the straw. Clover was a stout motherly mare approaching middle life, who had never quite got her figure back after her fourth foal. Boxer was an enormous beast, nearly eighteen hands high, and as strong as any two ordinary horses put together. A white stripe down his nose gave him a somewhat stupid appearance, and in fact he was not of first-rate intelligence, but he was universally respected for his steadiness of character and tremendous powers of work. After the horses came Muriel, the white goat, and Benjamin, the donkey. Benjamin was the oldest animal on the farm, and the worst tempered. He seldom talked, and when he did, it was usually to make some cynical remark--for instance, he would say that God had given him a tail to keep the flies off, but that he would sooner have had no tail and no flies. Alone among the animals on the farm he never laughed. If asked why, he would say that he saw nothing to laugh at.